If you have been reading about Nuclear receptor and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-03-22. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Published literature on cardarine includes in vitro assays, rodent experiments, and a small number of human studies. Reports describe effects on exercise capacity and lipid metabolism in animals, while human evidence is sparse. Many online descriptions present the compound as a proven endurance aid, a claim not supported by regulatory approval or large clinical trials. Analytical studies focus on identifying the parent compound and its metabolites in biological samples. Important uncertainties include species differences, dose-response relationships, and the relevance of rodent tumor findings to humans.
Cardarine is the common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist. Researchers developed it to explore treatments for lipid disorders and metabolic conditions. It is not an approved medicine in any country. Early clinical work examined changes in HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but development was discontinued after animal studies raised concerns about cancer. The compound remains available as a research chemical and appears in discussions of performance enhancement.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common name | Cardarine | Also called GW501516 and endurobol. |
| Chemical formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Molecular weight about 453.5 g/mol. |
| Appearance | White to off-white solid | Form depends on synthesis and purity. |
| Solubility | Soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Low solubility in water. |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, desiccated, protected from light | Common for research chemicals. |
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression related to fatty acid oxidation, glucose homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. GW501516 binds to this receptor with high affinity and activates downstream signaling in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Animal studies reported increased endurance and altered fuel preference, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. The precise relationship between receptor activation and observed physiological changes is still an area of active investigation. Researchers have also examined whether the compound affects inflammation or cell proliferation. No approved therapeutic indication exists for cardarine.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
In 1940–1941, some 325,000 Polish citizens were deported by the Soviet Union. The number of Polish citizens who died at the hands of the Soviets is estimated at less than 100,000. In 1943–1944, Ukrainian nationalists associated with the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army perpetrated the Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. Estimates of the number of Polish civilian victims vary greatly, from tens to hundreds of thousands. Approximately 90% of Poland's war casualties were the victims of prisons, death camps, raids, executions, the annihilation of ghettos, epidemics, starvation, excessive work and ill treatment. The war left one million children orphaned and 590,000 persons disabled. The country lost 38% of its national assets (whereas Britain lost only 0.8%, and France only 1.5%). Nearly half of pre-war Poland was expropriated by the Soviet Union, including the two great cultural centers of Lwów and Wilno. The policies of Nazi Germany have been judged after the war by the International Military Tribunal at the Nuremberg trials and Polish genocide trials to be aimed at extermination of Jews, Poles and Roma, and to have "all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term".
Since the December 2013 announcement that Zaxbys would begin to offer the Coca-Cola Freestyle machine at their locations, the decor in the fountain drink dispensing area has been dominated by that distinctive dispenser and other Coca-Cola branding. The company reintroduced milkshakes to its menu in 2025.
Emil Siebel, the son of the founder of the Zymotechnic Institute, broke away from his father's company to establish his own called the "Bureau of Biotechnology," which specifically offered expertise in fermented nonalcoholic drinks. The belief that the needs of an industrial society could be met by fermenting agricultural waste was an important ingredient of the "chemurgic movement." Fermentation-based processes generated products of ever-growing utility. In the 1940s, penicillin was the most dramatic. While it was discovered in England, it was produced industrially in the U.S. using a deep fermentation process originally developed in Peoria, Illinois. The enormous profits and the public expectations penicillin engendered caused a radical shift in the standing of the pharmaceutical industry. Doctors used the phrase "miracle drug", and the historian of its wartime use, David Adams, has suggested that to the public penicillin represented the perfect health that went together with the car and the dream house of wartime American advertising. Beginning in the 1950s, fermentation technology also became advanced enough to produce steroids on industrially significant scales. Of particular importance was the improved semisynthesis of cortisone which simplified the old 31 step synthesis to 11 steps. This advance was estimated to reduce the cost of the drug by 70%, making the medicine inexpensive and available. Today biotechnology still plays a central role in the production of these compounds and likely will for years to come.
For decades, the public viewed the house as the "Birthplace of Insulin," and many individuals expressed their desire to have it turned into a shrine or monument to honour the Canadian hero. It was first internationally referred to with the title "Birthplace of Insulin," in 1923, by the Detroit Free Press. After 47 years, the house received official recognition in 1970, in the form of a plaque for the house, awarded by the London Public Library Board. In 1981, the London & District Branch of the Canadian Diabetes Association purchased the house, and began to use it as an office; they hoped to eventually restore the house, and turn it into a museum. Through various grants and fundraising efforts, by 1984, the museum was operational.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Prandial insulin === When a person eats food containing carbohydrates and glucose, insulin helps regulate the body's metabolism of the food. Prandial insulin, also called mealtime or bolus insulin, is designed as a bolus dose of insulin prior to a meal to regulate the spike in blood glucose that occurs following a meal. The dose of prandial insulin may be static, or may be calculated by the patient using either their current blood sugar, planned carbohydrate intake, or both. This calculation may also be performed by an insulin pump in patients using a pump. Insulin regiments that consist of doses calculated in this manner are considered intensive insulin regimens. Prandial insulin is usually administered no more than 15–30 minutes prior to a meal using a rapid-acting insulin or a regular insulin. In some patients, a combination insulin may be used that contains both NPH (long acting) insulin and a rapid/regular insulin to provide both a basal insulin and prandial insulin.
an L-amino acid + H2O + O2 ⇌ a 2-oxo acid + NH3 + H2O2 The enzyme was first described in 1944 by A. Zeller and A. Maritz. Not only are LAAOs quite variable in terms of molecular mass, they also vary widely regarding stability. In a similar vein, this enzyme performs in a myriad of biological activities including apoptosis-induction, edema-induction, hemorrhaging, and inhibition or induction of platelet aggregation. As suggested by the name of the family, LAAOs are flavoenzymes which function to catalyze the stereospecific oxidative deamination of an L-amino acid. The three substrates of the enzymatic reaction are an L-amino acid, water, and oxygen. The products are the corresponding α-keto acid (2-oxo acid), ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide. One example of the enzyme in action occurs with the conversion L-alanine into pyruvic acid (2-oxopropanoic acid):
We would out-turn the P-51 and the other American fighters, with the Bf 109 or the Fw 190. Their turn rate was about the same. The P-51 was faster than us, but our munitions and cannon were better. German fighter ace Heinz Bär said that the P-51:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Clinical considerations == Deficiency in human tRNA methylthiotransferase eMtaB has been shown to be responsible for abnormal insulin synthesis and predisposition to type 2 diabetes. Mutations in human GTP cyclase MoaA has been reported to lead to molybdenum cofactor deficiency, a usually fatal disease accompanied by severe neurological symptoms. Mutations in human wybutosine-tRNA modifying enzyme Tyw1 promotes retrovirus infection. Alterations in human tRNA-modifying enzyme Elp3 results in progression into amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Mutations in human antiviral RSAD1 has been shown to be associated with congenital heart disease. Mutations in human sulfurtransferase LipA has been implicated in glycine encephalopathy, pyruvate dehydrogenase and lipoic acid synthetase deficiency. Mutations in human methylthiotransferase MiaB are related to impaired cardiac and respiratory functions.
==== False information and fines ==== During the elections, Jornal da Band released false polling that showed Melo in the lead against d'Ávila. Melo's campaign would later post their findings onto his Instagram account. Jornal da Band would later correct the polling data and Melo's campaign removed the post from social media. He was later condemned by electoral courts under the Brazilian Election Justice and was made to pay 106,000 reais for spreading false information. The judge that made the decision made the call to forward the case to the Federal Police for a criminal investigation. Melo and Gomes were fined again through the Election Justice for 41,900 reais for a series of irregularities in the campaign's finances, including the use of provisions to print religiously styled pamphlets that displayed him appearing alongside city council candidates from the PTB, a party that had not formally become a member of his coalition. Allies of Melo also went around the city to spread rumors that if d'Ávila was elected, that she would close the city's churches and force people to eat dog meat.
and Gavin et al. providing updated protein interaction data for yeast organism. Chemical cross-linking is often used to "fix" protein interactions in place before trying to isolate/identify interacting proteins. Common crosslinkers for this application include the non-cleavable NHS-ester cross-linker, bissulfosuccinimidyl suberate (BS3); a cleavable version of BS3, dithiobis(sulfosuccinimidyl propionate) (DTSSP); and the imidoester cross-linker dimethyl dithiobispropionimidate (DTBP) that is popular for fixing interactions in ChIP assays. Chemical cross-linking followed by high mass MALDI mass spectrometry can be used to analyze intact protein interactions in place before trying to isolate/identify interacting proteins. This method detects interactions among non-tagged proteins and is available from CovalX. SPINE (Strepprotein interaction experiment) uses a combination of reversible crosslinking with formaldehyde and an incorporation of an affinity tag to detect interaction partners in vivo. Quantitative immunoprecipitation combined with knock-down (QUICK) relies on co-immunoprecipitation, quantitative mass spectrometry (SILAC) and RNA interference (RNAi). This method detects interactions among endogenous non-tagged proteins. Thus, it has the same high confidence as co-immunoprecipitation. However, this method also depends on the availability of suitable antibodies. Proximity ligation assay (PLA) in situ is an immunohistochemical method utilizing so called PLA probes for detection of proteins, protein interactions and modifications.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational compound GW501516. It acts as a PPARδ agonist and is not approved for human use. It is prohibited in sport.
It activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression related to lipid and energy metabolism. Animal studies show changes in endurance and lipid levels. Human effects and risks are not well established.
No, cardarine is not a steroid. It belongs to a different chemical class, the PPARδ agonists. It is also not a selective androgen receptor modulator.
Cardarine is commonly known as GW501516 or GW-1516. These names refer to the same synthetic compound. It is not a brand-name approved medicine.