Everything below concerns PPARδ agonist. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-04-25. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Cardarine is the common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist. Researchers developed it to explore treatments for lipid disorders and metabolic conditions. It is not an approved medicine in any country. Early clinical work examined changes in HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but development was discontinued after animal studies raised concerns about cancer. The compound remains available as a research chemical and appears in discussions of performance enhancement.
At the molecular level, GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription. Activation shifts expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, energy expenditure, and lipid transport in skeletal muscle and liver. Animal studies report increased endurance and altered lipid profiles after exposure. Human data are limited to small trials and do not establish long-term safety or efficacy. PPARδ also has roles in cell proliferation, so the relationship between activation and cancer risk remains an open question.
Published literature on cardarine includes in vitro assays, rodent experiments, and a small number of human studies. Reports describe effects on exercise capacity and lipid metabolism in animals, while human evidence is sparse. Many online descriptions present the compound as a proven endurance aid, a claim not supported by regulatory approval or large clinical trials. Analytical studies focus on identifying the parent compound and its metabolites in biological samples. Important uncertainties include species differences, dose-response relationships, and the relevance of rodent tumor findings to humans.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common name | Cardarine | Also called GW501516 and endurobol. |
| Chemical formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Molecular weight about 453.5 g/mol. |
| Appearance | White to off-white solid | Form depends on synthesis and purity. |
| Solubility | Soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Low solubility in water. |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, desiccated, protected from light | Common for research chemicals. |
== Medical uses == The compound is indicated for adults with type 2 diabetes as an adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control. Dulaglutide is not indicated in the treatment of subjects with type 1 diabetes or patients with diabetic ketoacidosis because these problems are the result of the islet cells being unable to produce insulin and one of the actions of dulaglutide is to stimulate functioning islet cells to produce more insulin. Dulaglutide can be used either stand-alone or in combination with other medicines for type 2 diabetes, in particular metformin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, and insulin taken concomitantly with meals. The medication's phase 3 clinical trial program demonstrated reductions in hemoglobin A1c of approximately 1% with the 0.75 mg and 1.5 mg doses of the medication, along with approximately 5 pounds of weight loss on average. The higher 3.0 mg and 4.5 mg doses that were approved in 2020 demonstrated hemoglobin A1c reductions closer to 1.5% and slightly more weight loss. An alternate study conducted by REWIND had enrolled a lower-risk population consisting of 9901 patients, two-thirds had no prior cardiovascular events. These patients were randomized to dulaglutide 1.5mg weekly versus a placebo group for a median of 5.4 years. As a result of this study, Dulaglutide had reduced MACE by 12% (HR 0.88, 95% Cl 0.79-0.99) and had produced a 15% relative risk reduction in the composite renal outcome.
Margaret Belle (Oakley) Dayhoff (March 11, 1925 – February 5, 1983) was an American biophysicist and a pioneer in the field of bioinformatics. Dayhoff was a professor at Georgetown University Medical Center and a noted research biochemist at the National Biomedical Research Foundation, where she pioneered the application of mathematics and computational methods to the field of biochemistry. She dedicated her career to applying the evolving computational technologies to support advances in biology and medicine, most notably the creation of protein and nucleic acid databases and tools to interrogate the databases. She originated one of the first substitution matrices, point accepted mutations (PAM). The one-letter code used for amino acids was developed by her, reflecting an attempt to reduce the size of the data files used to describe amino acid sequences in an era of punch-card computing. Her PhD degree was from Columbia University in the department of chemistry, where she devised computational methods to calculate molecular resonance energies of several organic compounds. She did postdoctoral studies at the Rockefeller Institute (now Rockefeller University) and the University of Maryland, and joined the newly established National Biomedical Research Foundation in 1959. She was the first woman to hold office in the Biophysical Society and the first person to serve as both secretary and eventually president.
On 2 August 2015, The FA Community Shield in England was broadcast in Ultra HD by broadcast company BT Sport, becoming the first live football game shown in Ultra HD on the world's first commercial Ultra HD channel. The match was shown on Europe's first Ultra HD channel, BT Sport Ultra HD where selected live English Premier League and European Champions League matches were broadcast. Fashion One 4K launched on 2 September 2015 becoming the first global Ultra HD TV channel. Reaching nearly 370 million households across the world, the fashion, lifestyle and entertainment network broadcasts via satellite from Measat at 91.5°E (for Asia Pacific, Middle East, Australia) and from SES satellites Astra 19.2°E (for Europe), SES-3 at 103°W (for North America), NSS-806 at 47.5°W (for South America). In September 2015, Eutelsat presented new consumer research, conducted by TNS and GfK, on Ultra HD and screen sales in key TV markets. The study looked at consumer exposure to Ultra HD, perceived benefits and willingness to invest in equipment and content. GfK predicts a 200% increase in Ultra HD screen sales from June to December 2015, with sales expected to reach five million by the end of the year. GfK also forecasts that Ultra HD screens in 2020 will represent more than 70% of total sales across Europe and almost 60% in the Middle East and North Africa. On 2 September 2015, Sony unveiled the Xperia Z5 Premium; the first smartphone with a 4K display. On 9 September 2015, Apple Inc. announced that their new smartphone the iPhone 6S could record video in 4K.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
government agreed to spend $1.2 billion to purchase 1.7 million doses of Molnupiravir, a Merck product, if it were to be approved by regulators to treat COVID-19. In October 2021, the company said that the drug reduces the risk of hospitalization or death by around 50% for patients with mild or moderate cases of COVID-19 and that it would seek Emergency Use Authorization for the drug. In July 2021, Robert M. Davis became CEO, succeeding Kenneth Frazier, who became executive chairman. In July 2021, Merck completed the corporate spin-off of Organon & Co. In September 2021, Merck announced it would acquire Acceleron Pharma for $11.5 billion, gaining control over Sotatercept, used in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension, and luspatercept-aamt. In September 2022, the company announced it would acquire Vence, a livestock management company for an undisclosed sum, incorporating it within Merck Animal Health. In December 2022, the company announced a licensing deal with Kelun-Biotech of China whereby it would expand its early cancer pipeline with a set of antibody-drug conjugates; this follows an earlier agreement between the two companies to co-develop such drugs. In April 2023, Merck announced it would acquire Prometheus Biosciences Inc for $10.8 billion. In December 2023, Merck announced it had partnered with Owkin to develop artificial intelligence-powered digital pathology diagnostics that could be used to identify patients suitable for immunotherapies.
Within a protein, phosphorylation can occur on several amino acids. Phosphorylation on serine is thought to be the most common, followed by threonine. Tyrosine phosphorylation is relatively rare but lies at the head of many protein phosphorylation signalling pathways (e.g. in tyrosine kinase-linked receptors) in most of the eukaryotes. Phosphorylation on amino acids, such as serine, threonine, and tyrosine results in the formation of a phosphoprotein, when the phosphate group of the phosphoprotein reacts with the -OH group of a Ser, Thr, or Tyr sidechain in an esterification reaction. However, since tyrosine phosphorylated proteins are relatively easy to purify using antibodies, tyrosine phosphorylation sites are relatively well understood. Histidine and aspartate phosphorylation occurs in prokaryotes as part of two-component signaling and in some cases in eukaryotes in some signal transduction pathways. The analysis of phosphorylated histidine using standard biochemical and mass spectrometric approaches is much more challenging than that of Ser, Thr or Tyr. and In prokaryotes, archaea, and some lower eukaryotes, histidine's nitrogen act as a nucleophile and binds to a phosphate group. Once histidine is phosphorylated the regulatory domain of the response regulator catalyzes the transfer of the phosphate to aspartate.
Toronto City Council has announced its intention to challenge the bill on legal grounds. In July 2025, an Ontario court ruled that removing Toronto bike lanes was unconstitutional; the government will appeal the decision. In August 2026, the Ontario appeals court ruled that there is no constitutional obligation to regulate the use of roads in any particular manner, allowing Ford's government to remove Toronto bike lanes. In 2025, automated speed enforcement fell under controversy. The Kathleen Wynne Liberal government introduced legislation allowing automated speed enforcement in 2017, before the Ford government passed it in 2019. By October 2025, Ford announced legislation that would ban the use of speed cameras, calling them "cash grabs". The move came after many speed cameras in Toronto were vandalized. Over 20 mayors, including Olivia Chow of Toronto, spoke out against the proposed legislation, as well as municipalities, school boards, and police chiefs. On November 14, the Building a More Competitive Economy Act was passed, that struck the section of the Highway Traffic Act that permitted automated speed enforcement. Instead, the government launched a $210 million road safety initiatives fund for municipalities to implement traffic calming measures. His government has also reinstated the Northlander passenger train service and has broken ground on the East Harbour Transit Hub. Ford also expanded GO Transit services.
NCI-designated Cancer Centers are a group of 74 cancer research institutions in the United States supported by the National Cancer Institute. Three designations are recognized: Comprehensive Cancer Centers, Clinical Cancer Centers and Basic Laboratory Cancer Centers. As of May 20, 2026, there are 8 Clinical Cancer Centers, 58 Comprehensive Cancer Centers and 8 Basic Laboratory Cancer Centers. Most are associated with a university. Receiving the NCI-designation places cancer centers among the top 4% of the approximately 1,500 cancer centers in the United States. In 2021, more than 411,000 new patients were enrolled in a clinical trial at an NCI-designated Cancer Center.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Alternative medicine === There is some evidence that some treatments using alternative medicine can relieve some types of pain more effectively than placebo. The available research concludes that more research would be necessary to better understand the use of alternative medicine.
The acid loses a proton, leaving a conjugate base; the proton is transferred to the base, creating a conjugate acid. For aqueous solutions of an acid HA, the base is water; the conjugate base is A− and the conjugate acid is the hydronium ion. The Brønsted–Lowry definition applies to other solvents, such as dimethyl sulfoxide: the solvent S acts as a base, accepting a proton and forming the conjugate acid SH+.
== Signs and symptoms == Arthritis entails inflammation within the joint, and presents as swelling, pain, stiffness and restricted joint movement. Symptoms of JIA vary. This is because JIA has several subtypes, which differ according to the number of affected joints, severity of disease, age of onset, prognosis and presence or absence of inflammation in other parts of the body. The key clinical feature in JIA is persistent swelling of the affected joints. Any joint can be affected, but large joints such as the knee and ankle are most commonly involved. Involvement of small joints of the hands and feet is more likely when many joints are affected ('polyarthritis'). Swollen joints may also feel warmer to touch. Swelling may be difficult to detect clinically, especially for joints such as those of the spine, sacroiliac joints, shoulder, hip, and jaw. Joint pain is an important symptom, although some children experience minimal or no pain with their arthritis. In these children, the first sign of arthritis may be limping, especially in the morning. Swelling and pain usually result in limited movement of the affected joints, for example a knee held bent causing a limp, or being unable to make a full fist. Limited movement may reduce a child's ability to fully participate in activities and undertake usual tasks such as those used for self-care. In some JIA subtypes, more non-specific symptoms of being unwell may be present, such as lethargy, fatigue and poor appetite. Children with systemic JIA usually present with fever and a classic rash and may become quite ill.
Dinitrogen tetroxide is very useful for the preparation of anhydrous metal nitrates and nitrato complexes, and it became the storable oxidiser of choice for many rockets in both the United States and USSR by the late 1950s. This is because it is a hypergolic propellant in combination with a hydrazine-based rocket fuel and can be easily stored since it is liquid at room temperature. The thermally unstable and very reactive dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) is the anhydride of nitric acid, and can be made from it by dehydration with phosphorus pentoxide. It is of interest for the preparation of explosives. It is a deliquescent, colourless crystalline solid that is sensitive to light. In the solid state it is ionic with structure [NO2]+[NO3]−; as a gas and in solution it is molecular O2N–O–NO2. Hydration to nitric acid comes readily, as does analogous reaction with hydrogen peroxide giving peroxonitric acid (HOONO2). It is a violent oxidising agent. Gaseous dinitrogen pentoxide decomposes as follows:
=== In human bodies === Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body. Human bodies contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds, among those dicarboxylic acids play an essential role in many biological behaviors. Many of those acids are amino acids, which mainly serve as materials for the synthesis of proteins. Other weak acids serve as buffers with their conjugate bases to keep the body's pH from undergoing large scale changes that would be harmful to cells. The rest of the dicarboxylic acids also participate in the synthesis of various biologically important compounds in human bodies.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational compound GW501516. It acts as a PPARδ agonist and is not approved for human use. It is prohibited in sport.
It activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression related to lipid and energy metabolism. Animal studies show changes in endurance and lipid levels. Human effects and risks are not well established.
No, cardarine is not a steroid. It belongs to a different chemical class, the PPARδ agonists. It is also not a selective androgen receptor modulator.
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.