This is a working overview of research chemical, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-01-16. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516; GW-1516; endurobol | GW501516 is the research code |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Established chemical formula |
| Molar mass | 453.5 g/mol | Calculated from the formula |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport; not approved as medicine | Status varies by country |
GW501516 acts as an agonist at the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression. Activation shifts transcription toward genes involved in fatty acid uptake, oxidation, and energy expenditure. The compound does not bind the androgen receptor and therefore differs from anabolic steroids and SARMs. In rodent models, this metabolic shift has been linked to increased running endurance and reduced fat accumulation. The exact downstream pathways in humans remain incompletely characterized.
Early clinical research explored GW501516 for lipid disorders, obesity, and diabetes. Some short-term human studies reported changes in HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. The development program was discontinued after rodent studies showed dose-dependent tumor formation in multiple tissues, including liver, bladder, stomach, and skin. These findings raised concerns about long-term cancer risk in humans. Because human exposure data are limited, the clinical significance of the rodent tumors remains uncertain.
Literature on cardarine often separates receptor pharmacology from toxicology. Mechanistic papers describe PPARδ activation and gene expression changes, while safety assessments focus on carcinogenicity and species differences. Questions remain about whether rodent tumors arise through PPARδ-dependent or off-target mechanisms. Another open area is how human metabolism and exposure compare with those in animal studies. Analytical methods such as liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry are used to confirm identity in biological and product samples.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
==== Banning order ==== By 1973, the government regarded Black Consciousness as a threat. It sought to disrupt Biko's activities, and in March 1973 placed a banning order on him. This prevented him from leaving the King William's Town magisterial district, prohibited him from speaking either in public or to more than one person at a time, barred his membership of political organisations, and forbade the media from quoting him. As a result, he returned to Ginsberg, living initially in his mother's house and later in his own residence.
=== Metabolism === Ibutilide has a high systemic plasma clearance that closes to the hepatic blood flow (29mL/min/kg). Its metabolic pathway is via liver's cytochrome P450 system by isoenzymes other than CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 by which the heptyl side chain of ibutilide is oxidized. With eight metabolites are detected in the urine, however, only one is an active metabolite that shares the similar electrophysiologic property of the Class III antiarrhythmic agents. The plasma concentration of this metabolite is only less than 10% of ibutilide.
It also ran Camp Hardy Combat Training Center in the Northern Training Area of Okinawa to train SF, Navy SEALs, and US Marines deploying to Vietnam. It also earned the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its work during the year 1973. Following the war in South Vietnam, and the withdrawal of American military forces from Southeast Asia, the emphasis on military actions shifted away from the Asia-Pacific region and focused more on Europe and NATO. Special Forces, which had grown to a total of seven groups in 1963, faced severe cuts in the peacetime army; as a result, 1st Group was inactivated 28 June 1974 at Ft. Bragg, NC. After a 10-year hiatus, the need for an Asian unconventional warfare force was recognized, and Alpha Company, 1st Battalion was reactivated at Fort Bragg on 15 March 1984. This company and the remainder of the 1st Battalion were assembled and deployed to Torii Station, Okinawa during the spring and summer of 1984. The 2nd and 3rd Battalions, along with Headquarters and Service Company were officially reactivated 4 September 1984 at Fort Lewis, Washington. Brought back to life as part of overall growth in the support to U.S. strategic efforts in Asia, the unit focused on the Pacific Command area of operations but were routinely deployed out of Asia to support unified commanders throughout the world. Unit members supported theater security engagement within the PACOM area of operations, contingency operations in Haiti, Central Asia, and Bosnia.
== External links == Mephedrone - Isomer Design Mephedrone - PsychonautWiki 4-Methylmethcathinone - Erowid European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2011). Report on the risk assessment of mephedrone in the framework of the Council Decision on new psychoactive substances (Report). Publications Office. doi:10.2810/40800. Mephedrone – Frequently asked questions www.lifeline.org.uk Guardian Daily Podcast: How dangerous is mephedrone? ChemSub Online: Mephedrone
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Intracrine actions of PTHrP in cardiac cells ==== PTHrP exists in multiple isoforms, with some retained intracellularly rather than secreted. In cardiac myocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells, intracrine PTHrP is known to localize within the nucleus, where it regulates gene transcription, modulates cell proliferation, and affects intracellular calcium handling. One of the hallmark intracrine functions of PTHrP is its ability to influence angiogenesis. Studies have shown that nuclear PTHrP interacts with ribosomal DNA to upregulate genes involved in endothelial cell proliferation and vascular development. This action mirrors other intracrine factors, such as VEGF, which also regulate angiogenesis through nuclear localization.
== Structure == Chloroeremomycin is composed of seven amino acids (three non-proteinogenic, and four proteinogenic) and three saccharide units. From N-terminus to C-terminus, the order is: Me-L-Leu, L-Tyr, D-Asn, D-4-hydroxyphenylglycine (HPG), L-HPG, D-Tyr, and D-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG). When referring to specific amino acids, this article will reference the amino acid in the order it appears within the heptapeptide. Chloroeremomycin is glycosylated at aa4 with a Glc-(2→α1)-epivancosamine disaccharide and at aa6 with a D-BHT-(→α1)-epivancosamine saccharide. Some amino acids are modified prior to the completion of the heptapeptide (in cis) and some are modified after the heptapeptide is formed (in trans). During the synthesis of the heptapeptide, the stereocenters of aa3, aa4, aa6, and aa7 are changed from L to D. Both Tyr residues are hydroxylated and chlorinated after the amino acids have been incorporated to the growing polypeptide to form 4-chloro-β-hydroxytyrosine (BHT). The now-BHT residues are then crosslinked to the aa4 HPG through aryl-ether linkages. An aryl-aryl bond is formed between aa5 and aa7 at the aa5-C3 and aa7-C2 positions on the aromatic rings. Finally, the N-terminus Leu is methylated. In addition to the presence of D-amino acids, the molecule has atropisomer chemistry. The orientations of the chloro-substituted phenyl rings add another aspect of stereochemistry to the molecule.
=== Ethidium bromide === Ethidium bromide intercalates and stains DNA, providing a fluorescent red-orange stain. Although it will not stain healthy cells, it can be used to identify cells that are in the final stages of apoptosis – such cells have much more permeable membranes. Consequently, ethidium bromide is often used as a marker for apoptosis in cells populations and to locate bands of DNA in gel electrophoresis. The stain may also be used in conjunction with acridine orange (AO) in viable cell counting. This EB/AO combined stain causes live cells to fluoresce green whilst apoptotic cells retain the distinctive red-orange fluorescence.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Figure 3 shows B versus R∗ for the rough pipe data of Nikuradse, Shockling, and Langelandsvik. In this view, the data at different roughness ratio ε/D fall together when plotted against R∗, demonstrating scaling in the variable R∗. The following features are present:
In the 1950s, food engineering emerged as an academic discipline, when several U.S. universities included food science and food technology in their curricula, and important works on food engineering appeared. Today, educational institutions throughout the world offer bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees in food engineering. However, due to the unique character of food engineering, its training is more often offered as a branch of broader programs in food science, food technology, biotechnology, or agricultural and chemical engineering. In other cases, institutions offer food engineering education through concentrations, specializations, or minors. Food engineering candidates receive multidisciplinary training in areas like mathematics, chemistry, biochemistry, physics, microbiology, nutrition, and law. Food engineering is still growing and developing as a field of study, and academic curricula continue to evolve. Future food engineering programs are subject to change due to the current challenges in the food industry, including bio-economics, food security, population growth, food safety, changing eating behavior, globalization, climate change, energy cost and change in value chain, fossil fuel prices, and sustainability. To address these challenges, which require the development of new products, services, and processes, academic programs are incorporating innovative and practical forms of training. For example, innovation laboratories, research programs, and projects with food companies and equipment manufacturers are being adopted by some universities.
Claus von Bülow (born Claus Cecil Borberg; 11 August 1926 – 25 May 2019) was a British lawyer, consultant and socialite. In 1982, he was convicted of attempting to murder his wife Sunny von Bülow (born Martha Sharp Crawford; 1932–2008) in 1979, which had left her in a temporary coma, and in 1980, when an alleged insulin overdose left her in a persistent vegetative state for the rest of her life. On appeal, both convictions were reversed, and von Bülow was found not guilty at his second trial.
=== Copper deficiency === There are conflicting reports on the extent of deficiency in the U.S. One review indicates approximately 25% of adolescents, adults, and people over 65, do not meet the Recommended Dietary Allowance for copper. Another source states less common: a federal survey of food consumption determined that for women and men over the age of 19, average consumption from foods and beverages was 1.11 and 1.54 mg/day, respectively. For women, 10% consumed less than the Estimated Average Requirement; for men, fewer than 3%. Acquired copper deficiency has recently been implicated in adult-onset progressive myeloneuropathy and in the development of severe blood disorders including myelodysplastic syndrome. Fortunately, copper deficiency can be confirmed by very low serum metal and ceruloplasmin concentrations in the blood. Other conditions linked to copper deficiency include osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular disease, colon cancer, and chronic conditions involving bone, connective tissue, heart and blood vessels. nervous system and immune system. Copper deficiency alters the role of other cellular constituents involved in antioxidant activities, such as iron, selenium, and glutathione, and therefore plays an important role in diseases in which oxidant stress is elevated. A marginal, i.e., 'mild' copper deficiency, believed to be more widespread than previously thought, can impair human health in subtle ways.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.
No. It has no approved medical indication in any country. Regulatory agencies have not cleared it for treatment or prevention of any condition.
Early clinical work stopped after rodent carcinogenicity findings. Those animal results raised concerns about long-term human risk, although direct human evidence is lacking. The human relevance of the tumors remains an open scientific question.
Legal status varies by country. It is not approved as a medicine, and it is prohibited in sport. Some jurisdictions restrict import, sale, or possession.